Authors: Mohammad Haftani (Unversity of Alberta) | Chenxi Wang (Unversity of Alberta) | Jesus David Montero Pallares (Unversity of Alberta) | Mahdi Mahmoudi (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | Vahidoddin Fattahpour (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | Alireza Nouri (Unversity of Alberta)

In Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) operations, condensed water dissolves the formation minerals and mixes with formation water, and its salinity changes over time. For the salinity levels below a critical salt concentration, brine reacts with the formation clays and affects their mobilization towards the production well. Migrated fine particles may plug the pore spaces around the well and reduce wellbore productivity. This paper aims to investigate the impact of water salinity on fines migration and permeability reduction.

A large-scale pre-packed Sand Retention Tests (SRT) facility was employed to simulate SAGD well conditions. Brine with different NaCl salt concentrations was injected into synthetic sand-pack samples that are representative of the McMurray Formation. Flow rates were varied during the test, and fines migration along the sand-pack was traced. Differential pressures along the sand pack were recorded to calculate the permeability changes during the test. Samples of produced water were collected immediately below the coupon to measure the fines concentration. Testing parameters such as pH, clay mineralogy, temperature, and sand control specifications were kept constant in all tests.

Fines concentration in the produced water during the test and retained permeability were considered as the indicators of the fines migration inside the sand-pack. Results of step-rate testing display a jump in fines concentration in produced water right after each flow rate increase. Besides, fines concentration results show that fines migration was insignificant when using brine with high salt concentrations. Fines migration was stronger for a relatively narrow salinity range with low NaCl concentrations, resulting in the highest pore plugging. The findings in this research are consistent with past studies which relate clay dispersion to the zeta potential of clay materials: the higher the zeta potential, the stronger the fines dispersion and migration.

Based on this study, it is recommended that the operating companies monitor the chemical properties of the produced water. Field operators could preserve the reservoir productivity by manipulating the formation salinities to lower the dispersion and detachment of fines and their migration towards the production well.

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Authors: Yujia Guo, Morteza Roostaei, Alireza Nouri, Vahidoddin Fattahpour, Mahdi Mahmoudi, Heeseok Jung

Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) is the primary thermal recovery technology currently employed to extract heavy oil and high-viscosity bitumen from Alberta oil sands. In the near-wellbore region, the initial stresses are nearly zero, and as the SAGD chamber grows, the stresses tend to build up due to the thermal expansion of the formation. Also, melting of the bitumen and subsequent loss of the bonding between the grains leads to the collapse of the gap between the formation and sand control liner over time. The result will be effective stress buildup and gradual compaction of the oil sands around the liner.

Slotted liners have been extensively used as a sand control device in SAGD wells. Slotted liners must allow free flow through the slots with minimal plugging and acceptable amounts of sand production.

In our study, large-scale unconsolidated sand was packed over a multi-slot coupon of the slotted liner. The sand-pack was subjected to several stress conditions corresponding to the evolving stress conditions during the life cycle of a SAGD producer well. The testing program employed several multi-slot coupons to examine the flow performance under typical encountered stresses in SAGD wells. Cumulative produced sand was measured at the end of testing as an indicator of the sand control performance. The permeability evolution of the sand in the near-coupon zone was calculated by measurements of pressure differentials and considered as a measure of screen flow performance. Fines/clay concentration along the sand-pack was also quantified after the test to investigate the fines migration, a phenomenon which is considered to be the main reason for reduced wellbore productivity.

Experimental results show that the liner performance is significantly affected by the normal stress buildup on the liner. Experimental observations indicate sand-pack compaction due to the increase of effective stress around the liner leads to a lower porosity and permeability. The situation near the liner is further complicated by the fines accumulation that results in pore plugging and further permeability reduction. When it comes to sanding, however, higher stresses help stabilize the sand bridges behind the slots, leading to less sand production.

As for the design criteria, the lower and upper bounds of the slot size are governed by plugging and sand production, respectively. Considering the stress effect on plugging and sanding, testing data indicate that both the lower and upper bounds should be revised to larger slot aperture sizes.

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Authors: Morteza Roostaei (RGL Reservoir Management) | Omar Kotb (University of Alberta) | Mahdi Mahmoudi (RGL Reservoir Management) | Vahidoddin Fattahpour (RGL Reservoir Management) | Chenxi Wang (University of Alberta) | Alireza Nouri (University of Alberta) | Brent Fermaniuk (RGL Reservoir Management)

Open hole gravel pack (OHGP) has been broadly used for completion of steam-drive production wells. However, some failures have been observed with the gravel pack in such complex completions. This paper aims to better understand the OHGP performance in steam-drive production wells and examine the performance of rolled-top and straight-cut slotted liners using a large-scale Sand Retention Testing (SRT).

A large-scale SRT facility was developed to investigate the performance of the gravel pack in two-phase flow regime. The testing set-up allows for co-injection of oil and brine at controlled flow rate and water cut level to emulate different scenarios for two-phase flow across the gravel pack and sand screen/liner. Testing measurements included produced sand, absolute pressures, and differential pressure drops across the slotted liner, gravel pack, gravel-sand pack interface and sand pack. The test procedure and test matrix were designed to enable an accurate assessment of the gravel pack and slotted liner performance for different fluid flow scenarios. Rolled-top and straight-cut slotted liner coupons were used for this study.

Test results showed negligible sand production for both rolled-top and straight-cut slotted liners, however the produced sand was slightly higher for the rolled-top profile. The pressure drop across the rolled-top liners were smaller than the straight-cut liners based on the analytical analysis presented in this study. The results have also shown that a key factor in gravel packing performance is the ratio of the gravel pack size to the formation sand (sand pack) size. Larger gravels allow an easier production of the fines, while smaller gravels may trap the fines and be plugged over time.

This work provides a robust testing facility to address the gravel pack performance in steam-drive producer wells. The results help the engineers with gravel pack and sand control design and an evaluation for the entire wellbore life.

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Authors: M. Mahmoudi (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | V. Fattahpour (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | M. Roostaei (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | O. Kotb (University of Alberta) | C. Wang (University of Alberta) | A. Nouri (University of Alberta) | C. Sutton (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | B. Fermaniuk (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.)

In Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) projects, it is essential to heat the reservoir evenly to minimize the potential for the localized steam breakthrough. Steam breakthrough can cause erosive damage to the sand control liner by the flow of high-velocity wet steam, and, in extreme cases, can compromise the mechanical integrity of the liner. This research investigates the sanding mechanism during the high-quality steam injection into the SAGD production wells.

A large-scale Sand Retention Test (SRT) was used to investigate the role of steam breakthrough in the sand control performance. Produced sand and pressure drops along the sand-pack were the main measurements during the tests. The test procedure and test matrix were designed to enable the examination of the impact of steam breakthrough on sand production for different steam rates.

Two possible sanding mechanisms are postulated in steam breakthrough events: (1) local grain disturbance caused by the high-velocity steam near the liner, (2) effect of the complex phase behavior of the steam and the subcool level. Two different testing procedures were designed to examine these mechanisms. The local grain disturbance mechanism was investigated by injecting air at a wide range of velocities. Results indicate that this mechanism could not lead to a significant sanding when there is a bit of effective stress near the liner. Hence, it looks like that the steam velocity poses a higher risk in early stages of SAGD production when the near-liner stress is very low. The effect of high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT), low- to high-quality steam flow and the subcool level will be investigated in the next phase of the study. This work addresses the effect of high-quality steam breakthrough on the sand control performance of the liner in SAGD producer wells. The findings in this paper help the researchers to direct their research to better understand the steam breakthrough. This research will eventually help the engineers in their liner design and evaluation for the entire wellbore life cycle as the near-well stress evolves.

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Authors: J. D. Montero (University of Alberta) | S. Chissonde (University of Alberta) | O. Kotb (University of Alberta) | C. Wang (University of Alberta) | M. Roostaei (University of Alberta) | A. Nouri (University of Alberta) | M. Mahmoudi (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | V. Fattahpour (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.)

This paper presents a critical review of current evaluation techniques for the selection and design of sand control devices (SCD) for Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) wells. With the industry moving towards exploiting more difficult reservoirs, there is a need to review the current testing methods and assess their adequacy for sand control evaluation for different operational and geological conditions.

In addition to a critical review of existing sand control testing approaches for SAGD, the paper also discusses the testing parameters in previous studies to evaluate their representativeness of the field conditions in terms of interstitial seepage and viscous forces, and flow geometry. Moreover, the paper reviews the analysis and results of sand control testing in the literature and assesses the sand control design criteria in terms of the level of acceptable sand production and plugging. Furthermore, the review evaluates the suitability of the sample size, sand preparation techniques, representation of the SCD in the testing, and experimental procedures.

The review shows variations in the existing sand control testing in SAGD, in terms of not only approach, sand control representation, and sample size, but also regarding operational test conditions, such as flow rates and pressures. Ideally, large-scale pre-packed tests that include the effects of temperature and radial flow geometry would more closely emulate the actual conditions of SAGD wells than most existing tests allow. High temperatures may affect sanding and plugging through changes in wettability, permeabilities, and mineral alterations. Further, the varying velocity profile in radial flow towards the SCD influences the fines migration pattern differently from the linear-flow conditions in the existing Sand Retention Tests (SRT). However, large-scale radial-flow tests are constrained by cost and complexity.

Most SRT experiments have employed high flow rates, exceeding the equivalent field rates. Utilizing realistic rates for the tests and appropriately capturing the actual fluids ratios, water cuts and steam breakthrough scenarios can improve the quality of testing data. Accordingly, existing SRT experiments can be designed to incorporate, if not all, but some of the relevant physics in SAGD by employing representative viscosities, flow rates, fluid properties and ratios, stress conditions and obtain suitable live and post-mortem measurements.

This critical review compiles various aspects of current sand retention tests and evaluates their applicability to SAGD well conditions. It serves as a starting point for future research by providing an overview of existing testing methods, highlighting the strengths and opportunities for improvements.

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Authors: V. Fattahpour (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | M. Mahmoudi (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | M. Roostaei (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | C. Wang (University of Alberta) | O. Kotb (University of Alberta) | A. Nouri (University of Alberta) | C. Sutton (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.) | B. Fermaniuk (RGL Reservoir Management Inc.)

Injector wells in thermal field developments in Western Canada are usually completed by slotted liners. The purpose of liner installation is preventing sand production after a shut-in, keeping a stable wellbore, and providing an appropriate steam distribution. The objective of this paper is to quantify the role of slot width and slot density on the sanding performance of the liner in cycles of injection and shut-in in a SAGD injection well, through a series of laboratory sand control tests.

A large-scale sand retention testing facility was developed and employed to conduct a series of tests on slotted liner coupons with different slot widths and densities. These tests were tailored to simulate steam injection and backflow during the shut-in. Three representative particle size distributions for the McMurray Formation were used in this study ranging from coarse to fine sand. The experimental set-up allows to measure the amount of produced sand.

Since the produced sand in steam injection wells is not usually cleaned out, the acceptable threshold for sand production in the injector should be more conservative than the same for producer wells. Testing results indicate that the sand control performance of the liner is governed by the slot width and density, and formation particle size distribution. Results indicate a negligible amount of produced sand with gas backflow for a properly designed liner even at very high gas velocities.

Historically, there has been little attention to the sand control design for injector wells. This work highlights the significance of slot density and slot width in the sand control performance for steam injection wells. The paper provides the basis for the proper design of an effective sand control in SAGD injectors.

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Authors: Roostaei, Mohammad & Nouri, Alireza & Fattahpour, V. & Mahmoudi, Mahdi & Izadi, M. & Ghalambor, Ali & Fermaniuk, B.

Standalone screen (SAS) design conventionally relies on particle size distribution (PSD) of the reservoir sands. The sand control systems generally use D-values, which are certain points on the PSD curve. The D-values are usually determined by a linear interpretation between adjacent measured points on the PSD curve. However, the linear interpretation could result in a significant error in the D-value estimation, particularly when measured PSD points are limited and the uniformity coefficient is high. Using the mathematical representation of the PSD is an efficient method to mitigate these errors. The aim of this paper is to assess the performance of different mathematical models to find the most suitable equation that can describe a given PSD.

The study collected a large databank of PSDs from published SPE papers and historical drilling reports. These data indicate significant variations in the PSD for different reservoirs and geographical areas. The literature review identified more than 30 mathematical equations that have been developed and used to represent the PSD curves. Different statistical comparators, namely, adjusted R-squared, Akaike’s Information Criterion (AIC), Geometric Mean Error Ratio, and Adjusted Root Mean Square Error were used to evaluate the match between the measured PSD data with the calculated PSD from the formulae. The curve fit performance of the equations for the overall data set as well as PSD measurement techniques were studied. A particular attention was paid towards investigating the effect of fines content on the match quality for the calculated versus measured curves.

It was found that certain equations are better suited for the PSD database used in this investigation. In particular, Modified Logestic Growth, Fredlund, Sigmoid and Weibull models show the best performance for a larger number of cases (highest adjusted R-squared, lowest Sum of Squared of Errors predictions (SSE), and very low AIC). Some of the models show superior performance for limited number of PSDs. Additionally, the performance of PSD parameterized models is affected by soil texture: For higher fines content, the performance of equations tends to deteriorate. Moreover, it appears the PSD measurement techenique can influence the performance of the equations. Since the majority of the PSD resources used here did not mention their method of measurement, the effect of measurement technique could only be tested for a limited data, which indicates the measurement technique may impact the match quality.

Fitting of parameterized models to measured PSD curves, although well known in sedimentology and soil sciences, is a relatively unexplored area in petroleum applications. Mathematical representation of the PSD curve improves the accuracy of D-values determination, hence, the sand control design. This mathematical representation could result in a more scientific classification of the PSDs for sand control design and sand control testing purposes.

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Authors: M. Mahmoudi (RGL Reservoir Management) | V. Fattahpour (RGL Reservoir Management) | C. Wang (University of Alberta) | O. Kotb (University of Alberta) | M. Roostaei (University of Alberta) | A. Nouri (University of Alberta) | B. Fermaniuk (RGL Reservoir Management) | A. Sauve (RGL Reservoir Management) | C. Sutton (RGL Reservoir Management)

Sand production is not usually considered a major concern during the injection phase in injection wells. However, well shut-in for service requirements or sudden pump failure, hence the backflow towards the wellbore and potential generation of water hammer pressure pulsing, can lead to massive sand production under favorable conditions. With the aim of sanding prevention, this paper examines the design criteria for standalone screens (SAS) in injection wells using a novel sand control testing facility.

This paper presents a new large-scale sand retention testing (SRT) facility to simulate the effect of pressure pulsation and backflow in injection wells on the sand control performance of SAS. The SRT facility can be used in the selection of the best sand control method for injector wells. It can be also used to provide further understanding on the impact of formation damage on well injectivity decline, as well as study the effect of water hammer pressure pulsation on sand production in injection wells.

Test results show a rapid fall off in the pressure and drastically high backflow rates due to the sudden shut-in. Higher pressure drops are observed to result in a greater backflow volume and a longer backflow period. Results also show that the slot width has a drastic influence on the sanding performance of the screen. Testing observations, for the studied PSD, indicate that the injection well requires narrower slots 1.4 D10 to meet the sand production requirements due to a high fluidization potential in the near-screen zone. Higher flow velocities during the backflow period and the tossing effect caused by the pressure waves increase the sanding potential. The produced sand during the backflow period, is observed to mainly relate to the ratio of the slot width to the mean formation grain size. It is observed that higher effective stresses around the screen work towards stabilizing the sand bridges and reducing the amount of produced sand.

This paper presents a new experimental test facility for the sand control type selection and evaluation for injection wells with the aim of limiting the amount of produced sand and sustaining the wellbore injectivity. The proposed testing facility allows the performance comparison of different sand control devices and designs.

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